Bias in History

No matter how hard a historian might try to distance themselves from their personal history and and approach a subject without bias, it is virtually impossible to do successfully. It is this reason that most historians appear dry and dull to those they are trying to teach and it is only recently that many have decided to abandon this practice in favor of a new more alive history that accepts bias and tries not to ignore it but rather to understand it. 

In the first manner the approach to the middle ages would have been dry facts and figures that shied away from cultural impressions because the historian could not control their bias in a discourse of supposition. In the new manner a historian would discuss the basics of lifestyle that would shape an individuals thoughts and use their own experiences and the examples found in primary sources to form the basis for their theories. For example, it was often believed that women in the middle ages were in a similar state of male domination as their Victorian counterparts. It is true that most of documented history supports this, but it seems they had much more freedom than was previously believed. Although they were often in the minority and sometimes lesser than their male counterparts, there were women artisans, writers, theologians, and rulers. 

Here are some primary sources to support this. (A primary source is any document, art, or other first hand account that is from the time period being studied.) Christine de Pizan (1364-1430) is often viewed as Europe's first professional female writer. She was the court writer for several French courts including Charles VI. Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) was a German writer, composer, philosopher, Christian mystic, and Benedictine abbess. Margaret I of Denmark ruled Denmark in her own right and through her marriage to King Haakon VI of Norway and Sweden established the Kalmar Union which united the Scandinavian countries for over a decade. Below are depictions of Christine de Pizan and Hildegard of Bingen from illuminated manuscripts. 

Historiography

The study of history itself comes in many disciplines. Every field of study from art to science has a history and each its own unique view point. There are also several theories about history and how it is shaped that influence how historians study the subject. The two main theories that most people use, are the Great Man theory and the Great Events theory. The great man theory holds that history is moved by individuals and leaders. The great events theory suggests the opposite in that the events shape the people. There is a third theory that has recently grown in popularity that combines the two in a cultural theory, that events and people shape each other. This third form of study focuses more on the how and why of history and less on the facts of what.

For the my focus on 12th and 13th century Western Europe the use of these theories is helpful in creating a picture of life in those times. Cultural studies start at the bottom with the lowest classes asking questions about daily life. What did they eat and wear? What did their houses look like and what did they do for work? As you move through each level of society you recreate the whole picture with no missing pieces. Did they go to school? What was worship like? Events studies creates a time line that holds each society together. Were there wars, rebellions? Who was allied to who? Were they allied through marriage, treaties, did the alliance last? In the study of great men/women we follow the lives of kings and queens, popes and heretics, scientists and philosophers, artists and rebels. These are the people who were in the right place at the right time to effect a change in their societies that had a lasting impact. Had they lived earlier or later things might have been different for them, but we can only speculate on the might have beens. 

For more information on historiography and other views on the study of history check out Michael Bentley's Modern Historiography: An Introduction.

National Identity

The idea of nationalism is a fairly modern concept. In the middle ages boundaries were still heavily contested. Some areas under dispute were not settled until as recently as World War I, for instance Alsace-Lorraine between France and Germany. During the early middle ages the feudalistic form of government meant that loyalty belonged to the liege lord, not the land. Because land was constantly changing titles and boundaries  it fell to the individual to be the leader around whom loyalty and devotion was owed. In later years as monarchies consolidated power, the average person identified with their local lord first. Even in our global world where cultural lines have begun to blur, regional differences still play a large part in our identities. This was more pronounced in the middle ages, where travel took longer and change was slower. 

In France there were two main regional divides, and for the most part they still exist today. The northern region held the counties/dukedoms of Normandy, Brittany, Poitier,  Berry, Burgundy, Champagne, Lorraine, Bourbon, and the most important Ille de France. These were collectively known as the Langues d'oil for the language pronunciation of the word yes, oui. The south is a smaller region and was referred to as Langues d'oc, there is an area that still is in fact. The majority of the south was controlled by the county of Toulouse.  Also in the region were the counties of Aquitaine, Gascony, and Provence. Prior to the mid-1200s, this southern region was under the vassalage of the King of Aragon in what is now Spain. Being so close to the borders, Provence held close ties to both France and Italy. After the so-called Albigensian Crusade, these areas were brought under more direct control by the King of France.

Even the Holy Roman Empire consisted of a number of smaller regions joined under the Emperor. Much the same way the the European Union today is composed of individual countries united under a common council, each part is still largely autonomous although it is subject to the higher authority. 

The Hundred Years War between France and England, beginning in the 14th century, was a territorial war over the right to the throne. There were very close ties between France and England after William the Conqueror of Normandy claimed the throne of England, and several subsequent marriage alliances between the two countries. The conflicts between the two countries helped to foster a sense of nationalism, especially with the arrival of Joan of Arc and her immense popularity even to this day. 

The advent of the printing press in the mid 15th century and it's importance to the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation helped to increase this growing nationalist movement. The vernacular languages of each country began to be standardized during this period as regional differences were merged. The creation of a middle class during this time period also fostered less dependence on the ideology of nobility and liege-lords, and more of a connection to the idea of King and Country. Many factors went into this, but I will not delve into them at this point. 

For more information on the rise of nationalism, try Henry Kamen's Early Modern European Society, or Elizabeth L. Eisenstein's The Printing Press as an Agent of Change.

Fashion in the Early Middle Ages

Every society has a set idea of what is considered acceptable fashion. Some are based more on function and have few set rules on style. Others, like the Victorian period, dictate very strict guide lines and requirements. The early middle ages in western Europe saw the Roman style mix with the up and coming Franks, Gauls, Saxons, and other tribes. The continent's climate was cooler then, so long layers and cloaks were practical. With the addition of Christianity, modesty in clothing also became more important. In Rome the typical fashion was the chiton, for men and women, it was essentially a sleeveless tunic gathered at the waist with a belt. It was worn in varying lengths, but as Rome's power fell, so to did it's hold over fashion. The tunic was still worn, but sleeves were added and the hems of women dropped to below the ankle. 

This simple drapery style held sway with many variants until the 14th century when styles began to change drastically. During this early period with Christian morals in sway, women began covering their hair in veils. For peasants these were simple linen coverings, but for the wealthy headdresses could be quite elaborate. Most clothing were made of linen or wool, but trade with the east, especially after the crusades, saw the import of silk and cotton. Fabric dyes would only be limited by nature and the imagination, so while many modern minds imagine peasants wearing only browns and natural colors, they are more likely to have had more colorful outfits similar to these depicted in the illuminated manuscript of the Duke Jean de Berry of France by the Limbourg brothers in the early 15th century.

The layering of a more elaborate overdress with a simpler underdress allowed for a more elaborate style while serving a very practical purpose. A plain linen underdress could be washed more frequently than embroidered gowns of heavy wool or trimmed fur dresses. In an age where water had to be heated over a fire and then carried by hand, it made sense to be as practical as possible. That does not mean they only bathed once a year. Even after the fall of Rome, their ideas of cleanliness still influenced western society.

The birth of the Italian Renaissance and its ideas on humanism broke some of the Church's power and with new trade and industry a middle class was formed. This class of wealthy tradesmen with aims of nobility could afford to dress like the nobles, so fashion began to be increasingly more intricate and ever changing in an attempt to differentiate the classes. 

For more on historical fashion try these books.

Cosgrave, Bronwyn. The Complete History of Costume and Fashion: From Ancient Egypt to the Present Day. New York: Checkmark Books, 2000.

Payne, Blanche, Geitel Winakor, and Jane Farrell-Beck. The History of Costume. 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1992.

Piponnier, Françoise, and Perrine Mane. Dress in the Middle Ages. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.

Wagner, Eduard, Zoroslava Drobná, and Jan Durdík. Medieval Costume, Armour, and Weapons. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2000.

Pilgrimage and Crusade

With the rise of the Christian Church, a curious paradox between peace and violence was created that has spread to every corner western culture has touched. War and violence were very prevalent as lords and kingdoms fought to create new boundaries out of the chaos left by the Roman Empire's loss of power to the barbarian invaders. The Church tried to limit this by establishing the so-called Peace or Pax in Latin. During the conversion of the Romans and then the European continent, the priests spoke of Jesus' message of peace and self-sacrifice, but in a world were violence was often deemed necessary, a message of nonviolence was not going to be an easy sell. The concept of justified, or even holy, war was created out of the Christian message. It became God's will that the strong protect the weak, for the Bible says that the meek shall inherit the earth.

Pilgrimage was an established practice long before Christianity came on the scene, and there are many pilgrimage sites that are sacred to more than one religion. Jerusalem has always been the most controversial of such sites being the center for three of the worlds largest religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three religions hold pilgrimage to be important and believe that every man should travel to a holy site at least once in their lifetime. Although violence on the roads were still hazardous, Christian pilgrims carried outward signs of their journey that all but the most hardened criminals respected out of fear of Godly retribution. This safety of the road became an established Peace dictated by the Church and executed by the local political authority. It was also extended to include women, children and the clergy.

The first crusade was initially an appeal from the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Kommenos to Pope Urban II for military aid to protect his boarders against the Seljuq Turks in 1095 CE. Urban II saw this as a greater opportunity to reclaim the whole of Palestine and the Holy Land for Christendom. To that end he began a preaching campaign lasting most of a year calling for a military pilgrimage, a holy crusade. Over the following 200 years there were six major crusade expeditions, along with at least six minor expeditions, the so-called people's crusade, the children's crusade, and the crusades outside of the Holy Land including the Reconquista in Spain, the Albigensian in Southern France, the German crusade, and the Northern crusades against various pagan and heretical groups including Slavic minorities.

Ultimately the Europeans were unable to hold the lands they claimed in Palestine, but they were greatly influenced by their travels and brought back more than war stories. Expanded trade routes were set up bringing in silks and spices. Artisans and intellectuals discovered techniques and ideas lost in western Europe, but preserved in the Islamic and Greek east. Although the crusades were war driven, they also made travel easier, almost a Christian duty, and this allowed the 12th and 13th centuries to thrive in a way they had not since the fall of Rome. Universities were founded in Paris and elsewhere that were not directly connected to the church. Architecture rose to new heights as the Gothic style was created. The 12th century is sometimes called the little renaissance of the middle ages.

For more detail information on the crusades check out Christopher Tyerman's God's War: A New History of the Crusades